What Is a Biblical Motif? The Levites as a Case Study
Biblical authors did not express abstract ideas in the sequential way to which Western thinkers and readers have become accustomed. They rarely wrote straightforward explanations of their theology or even introductory sentences to orient the reader with their narrative perspective. However, they use a plethora of subtle methods to convey thought patterns. Among them is the motif, a concept borrowed by biblical scholars from the world of music and literature.
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Unlike a theme, which is an idea underscoring the value-system of the narrative, Robert Alter explains that a motif is a concrete image, sensory quality, action or object that purposefully recurs in a particular narrative.1R. Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative. (New York: Basic Books, 1981). 95–96, n. 6. However, many scholars simply define a motif as a repeating “plot-element,” and so it can be either a concrete object—like “water” in the life of Moses—or an abstraction like the “abandoned-hero motif,” also observed in Moses’ early life in Exodus 2. Motifs underscore central points and ideas of a textual unit. Tracking the development of biblical motifs can uncover nuances of biblical thought and help shed light on biblical figures. A motif makes its point subtly but no less poignantly than an outright statement of declarative narration. Below we will briefly explore how motifs surrounding Levite individuals and cultic servants influence readers’ understanding of their significance and relationship in the biblical narrative.
The Levitic Motif of Violence: Individual Levites
To illustrate how biblical motifs operate and the profits of studying them, let’s look briefly at the Levites and their relationship with violence. The Levites are familiar to us as cultic officials in the Tabernacle and later in the Temple. According to the plain presentation of the verses, they are called Levites because they are descendants of Levi, son of Jacob; however, scholars tend to disassociate the two and claim that the Levites evolved independently. What is often overlooked are several motifs that appear in both narratives surrounding individual Levites and the cultic group. These motifs suggest a deeper correlation between the individual tribal ascription and the Temple servants.
Violence is first observed in Levi’s role in avenging Dinah’s rape in Genesis 34. Levi and Simeon kill Shechem and his father Hamor before freeing Dinah from captivity. Though the narrative may leave room for positive evaluation of their violence, Jacob curses them in Genesis 49.2Jacob’s curse to his sons in Gen. 49:5–6 (translation taken from JPS Genesis):
Simeon and Levi are a pair;
Their weapons are tools of lawlessness;
Let not my person be included in their council,
Let not my being be counted in their assembly.
For when angry they slay men, And when pleased they maim oxen. The next biblical figure specifically identified as a Levite is Moses in Exodus 2, whose parents are identified only as a “man” and “woman” from the “house of Levi.” This suggests an interesting frame for his killing of the Egyptian taskmaster. In contrast to Simeon and Levi, who use violence to protect the honor of their nuclear family, Moses—cut off from his nuclear family—comes to the defense of his ethnic family. He seems to inherit the Levitic family legacy of violence and the desire to help the weak.3Interestingly, this is also a trait modeled by the women who shaped his early life. See J. Radday, Exodus 2: A New Approach (Hebrew) in Sefer Yaakov Gil (Jerualem: Reuven Mas, 1979). 243–244. While Simeon and Levi’s violent behaviors are cursed, Moses is never punished for his. In fact, his defense of the Israelite and his heroic saving of the Midianite women from harangue are framed as precursors to his being chosen by God as the nation’s leader in the succeeding chapter (Exod 3). Both Levi’s and Moses’ use of violence reflects a sensitivity to unjust and cruel human relationships.
The Motif of Violence: Levites as Temple Servants
The Levites’ relationship with violence undergoes a dramatic shift in Exodus 32 in the Golden Calf episode. After the calf’s construction, the Levites come to Moses’ aid to kill the sinners, for which God praises them and rewards them with cultic service. This episode is transformative for the Levites’ relationship with violence because God commands the Levites to kill, in contrast to prior episodes of violence which are self-initiated and are denigrated by other characters in the surrounding narratives.
The motif of violence then makes a surprising appearance in the Levite’s cultic assignment. They are responsible for protecting the Tabernacle from encroaching Israelites. When illicit contact is made with sancta, divine wrath breaks out and indiscriminately punishes the entire community for sins of the individual.4As in Num. 1:53; 8:19; 17:11–15, 27–28; 25:9, 18–19; 31:16. Due to the collective nature of punishment, guard duty is a task of epic importance because it protects the Tabernacle from impurity and the entire community from death. If they fail to prevent encroachment, Levites are held responsible with their own life.5See Num. 1:51; 3:10, 38; 18:7 for references to divine wrath. However, if they catch the encroacher, they are commanded to kill them in an act of self-defense.6The phrase used in to describe the encroacher and his punishment is ha-zar ha-karev yumat (וְהַזָּר הַקָּרֵב יוּמָת). J. Milgrom distinguishes between the qal and hof’al stems of the root מ.ו.ת.. In the qal form (ימות), the subject refers to God while in hof’al (יוּמָת) the act is carried out by man which in this case is the Levitic guard. See Jacob Milgrom, Studies in Levitical Terminology (Berkley: University of California Press, 1970). 5–7. This instruction is a continuous duty and not a onetime assignment as in Exodus 32, and broadens the positive Levite association with violence observed in the calf episode. Additionally, Levites who have been observed as continually engaged in protecting kin and family honor (Gen 34; Exod 2) retain this responsibility in the cultic realm.
Another fascinating correlation between Levites and violence appears in Numbers 35 wherein all Levitical cities are additionally assigned as cities of refuge for manslayers threatened by the family of the deceased. The motif of Levitic violence suggests a deeper relationship between the Levitical cities’ dual identity. Levitic presence in these cities, while quite possibly representing cultic protection and a certain degree of piety, serves as comforting precedent for the asylum seeker who finds himself cut off from home. The Levitic presence reminds the refugee that even violence can be sublimated into a positive context.
There are several other cases of Levitic violence which are met with varying responses by the narrator and by God. For example, in Numbers 25 Phinehas the priest (and thereby also a Levite) kills the Israelite prince and his Midianite lover caught committing foreign worship on Tabernacle grounds.7There are several explanations of the Israelite’s sin. This is only one of them. While Phinehas’ violence is swift and shocking, God rewards him. Additionally, the final chapters of Judges include two tragic narratives with anonymous Levite protagonists. The Levite in chapter 19 commits perhaps the most shocking murder in the entire Hebrew Bible when he takes his raped and nearly lifeless concubine, cuts her into twelve pieces and sends one piece to each of the twelve tribes. Subtle literary methods suggest that the Levite husband is no less guilty of murder than the woman’s rapists. Though individual acts of Levitic violence are met with fluctuating narrator evaluations, the tribe of Levi is positively correlated with the motif of violence.
Why Use Motifs?
What are the profits of this type of thematic study? In the case of the Levites, it reflects a biblical worldview in which violence has a time and place; violence is not inherently taboo. Though Levite individuals sometimes misuse this tool, as cultic servants they are shown how to sublimate it into the service of God. The Talmudic passage in tractate Shabbat (156a) reflects a similar idea when it states that a child born under the constellation of Mars will be a shedder of blood. R. Ashi comments that he can be a surgeon, a thief, a slaughterer (of animals), or a circumciser. In other words, there are multiple outlets for violence in this world, some of which play a role in the service of God.
Many biblical texts use motifs to underscore the morals and truths they subtly convey. The motif of reversal of primogeniture—wherein the younger brother triumphs over the elder—is particularly present in the book of Genesis, but appears in other books as well.8For example, in the story of Gideon’s children in the book of Judges (ch. 9) and in the story of Jephthah (Judges 11). While there are many articles and books devoted to this motif and others related, E. Fox’s article is a good place to start. E. Fox, “Stalking the Younger Brother: Some Models for Understanding a Biblical Motif,” JSOT 60 (1993): 45–68. The “barren woman” motif is present in many biblical narratives and underscores the providential nature of pregnancy and birth. Motifs cast subtle webs of connection between diverse texts and biblical works. It is our job as readers to open our eyes and ears to their resounding presence.
End Notes
1. R. Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative. (New York: Basic Books, 1981). 95–96, n. 6.
2. Jacob’s curse to his sons in Gen. 49:5–6 (translation taken from JPS Genesis):
Simeon and Levi are a pair;
Their weapons are tools of lawlessness;
Let not my person be included in their council,
Let not my being be counted in their assembly.
For when angry they slay men, And when pleased they maim oxen.
3. Interestingly, this is also a trait modeled by the women who shaped his early life. See J. Radday, Exodus 2: A New Approach (Hebrew) in Sefer Yaakov Gil (Jerualem: Reuven Mas, 1979). 243–244.
4. As in Num. 1:53; 8:19; 17:11–15, 27–28; 25:9, 18–19; 31:16.
5. See Num. 1:51; 3:10, 38; 18:7 for references to divine wrath.
6. The phrase used in to describe the encroacher and his punishment is ha-zar ha-karev yumat (וְהַזָּר הַקָּרֵב יוּמָת). J. Milgrom distinguishes between the qal and hof’al stems of the root מ.ו.ת.. In the qal form (ימות), the subject refers to God while in hof’al (יוּמָת) the act is carried out by man which in this case is the Levitic guard. See Jacob Milgrom, Studies in Levitical Terminology (Berkley: University of California Press, 1970). 5–7.
7. There are several explanations of the Israelite’s sin. This is only one of them.
8. For example, in the story of Gideon’s children in the book of Judges (ch. 9) and in the story of Jephthah (Judges 11). While there are many articles and books devoted to this motif and others related, E. Fox’s article is a good place to start. E. Fox, “Stalking the Younger Brother: Some Models for Understanding a Biblical Motif,” JSOT 60 (1993): 45–68.
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